what is seismic refraction used for

X    Seismic refraction surveys provide a measure of material strengths and can consequently be used as an aid in assessing rip pability and rock quality. The output data from the geophones is compiled and processed by a seismograph. Z, Copyright © 2021 Trenchlesspedia Inc. - We can also determine structures such as faults and basins, history of deposition, and look for oil and gas. The seismic refraction method, due to its versatility, is one of the most commonly used geophysical methods in engineering, mining, groundwater exploration and environmental site … Privacy Policy Looking at the above figure, how do we figure out what are the distances s1, s2, and s3? The advantage of this technique is the ability to tow the seismic source on a sled or catamaran and to tow the line of hydrophones. This is called total reflection. Receivers (R1, R2, R3) on the surface detect head wave at t1, t2, t3, which correspond with increasing distance from the source. That's because seismic refraction really doesn't know the difference between materials like soil, water, rock, plastic, or … Now that we've reviewed, let's first look at two sample ray paths. Seismic refraction test is more commonly used method in earthquake engineering. Recently it was employed for deep crustal studies under the direction of the Geophysics Department of the University of … A signal, similar to a sound pulse, is transmitted into the Earth. A seismic wave is energy transfer by way of particle motion and are of three types namely, compression wave, shear wave and surface wave. Recordings of distant or local earthquakes are used to infer earth structure and faulting characteristics. Seismic Refraction Surveying. Refraction ie 'critical refraction' which is useful for determining velocities of layers, Reflection, which is useful for determining layers and structure, \(t_o=\frac{2h(v^2_2-v^2_1)^{\frac{1}{2}}}{v_1v_2}\), \(h=\frac{t_ov_1v_2}{2(v^2_2-v^2_1)^{\frac{1}{2}}}\). Using the vertical incidence of a reflected ray, we can derive an equation to calculate the time the ray took to reach the receiver: Now, let's look at what happens as \(\theta_i\) increases. The Benefits of Trenchless Technology to the Utility Industry in Asia, When Trenchless Technology is Not Feasible, Planning a Bore For a Trenchless Project? Seismic Reflection (both on-shore and marine) is the most common geophysical methodology used for oil and gas exploration and exhibits the highest degree of technical sophistication in terms of both data acquisition and signal processing capabilities. The signal recorded at the surface can be used to infer subsurface properties. C    Seismic refraction is one of the methods of geophysics used to investigate subsurface ground conditions for trenchless operations. #    The velocity of seismic waves depends on density elastic moduli. Layer velocities are important because they directly correlate with the material's hardness and/or amount of fracturing. Q    A distance much larger than the depth of investigation separates the source and receiver. You'll notice that the term "rock" was omitted in the previous sentence. Adopted a LibreTexts for your class? D    N    The Geotechnical Investigation: Which Method Should We Use? Terms of Use - Seismic refraction is a geophysical technique used to interpret depth and layer velocities of soil, partially weathered rock, and competent rock. When you use seismic waves in the study of earthquakes, the earthquakes are the source of energy, that is, the source of the waves. Seismic Refraction. Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle (see refraction) governed by Snell's Law and first discovered by Famous Catalan geologist Alex 'Jaymo' Jamieson. Today we are going to focus on refraction surveys. Read More Refraction also occurs: o From Snell's Law, a ray path is dependent on the wave velocities through different layers. This parameter typically correlates well with rock hardness and density, which in turn tend to correlate with changes in lithology, degree of fracturing, water content, and weathering. A. It utilizes seismic waves sourced from the ground surface. Seismic refraction is commonly used to obtain such information, however it is more labour intensive than many other geophysical survey techniques, both with regard to field work and data processing. Applied Seismology. First, we are going to quickly review what we learned in the last section: slowness/Snell's Law and Reflection and Transmission, \[\frac{\sin \theta_i}{v_1}=\frac{\sin \theta_r}{v_2}\]. The seismic trace components include direct wave, reflected wave and critically refracted wave. H    The method of geological profiling known as seismic refraction measures the time it takes seismic waves or rays to move through the ground, hit the bedrock, and be rebounded back to the surface. Click here to let us know! What are velocities v1, v2, and v3? It utilizes seismic waves sourced from the ground surface. Seismic refraction survey is a method that is often used to determine excavation characteristics. can be obtained using seismic reflection and refraction methods. Reflection seismology is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. Primarily, we use P-waves for seismic surveys as they are faster and easier to see on seismograms. O    Seismic Refraction. ... pinchouts or a flood plain along a seismic profile. Another important value that can be graphed is the crossover distance, or \(x_{co}\). If there is a large angle reflection of a wave, all energy is reflected and none is refracted. S    Seismic refraction provides density information of subsurface layers. Seismograph model. Wave refraction occurs at interfaces where lower layer has greater seismic velocity than overlying layer. The equation is a line whose slope is \(\frac{1}{v_1}\) and intercept=0. More of your questions answered by our Experts. The survey consisted of a series of shots fired from each end of the line of geophones, that ran North-South. Refraction, in physics, the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused by its change in speed. The surveys shed light on the layers of rock, including each ones thickness and seismic velocity (and from seismic velocity we can estimate rock type). One of the most important uses of seismic waves is for seismic surveys. To get refraction, we must have v2>v1. The critically refracted ray is crucial to surveys. The direct wave travels horizontally along the surface. Used in the fields of engineering geology , geotechnical engineering and exploration geophysics , seismic refraction traverses (seismic lines) are performed using a seismograph (s) and/or geophone (s), in an array and an … Unless otherwise noted, LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. T    The seismic refraction technique has been used sparingly in Iowa. U    Y    Reflection seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation. When \(\theta_r\) increases until 90o, the wave is critically refracted. Note that a short Seismic Refraction Glossaryis also provided. L    Seismograph used in this experiment as shown in Figure 7. To summarize what we learned in this section: How do you determine subsurface structure? When should I choose pipe ramming as my preferred trenchless method? This is also used as a data acquisition system for Legal. C3.1 Seismic refraction – single horizontal interface The P-wave is refracted at the interface between the two layers. o For refraction seismology, the critical angle is the most important angle value to understand. Seismic refraction is commonly limited to mapping bedrock depths and rippabilities at depths less than 100 feet, and is generally applicable only where the seismic velocities of layers increase with depth. Since v1 > v2 the wave is refracted towards the horizontal. The seismic refraction method. \[x_{co}=2h(\frac{v_2+v_1}{v_2-v_1})^{\frac{1}{2}}\]. By Deborah Underwood Geometrics, Inc. Geometrics, Inc. - www.geometrics.com - September 2009 r4a 2. The above equation is the direct ray travel/arrival time. The Rs represent receiving stations. In seismic reflection method the waves travel downward initially and are reflected at some point back to the surface, the overall path being essentially vertical. There are two types of seismic surveys, In seismic surveys we can use geometry and travel time of waves to determine structure and velocity. G    The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or Tovex blast, a specialized air gun or a seismic vibrator, commonly known by the trademark name Vibroseis. Earthquake Seismology. P    Seismic Refraction Test . The critically refracted ray generates a 'head wave'. o If angle (r) equals 90 degrees, then the refracted wave propagates along the boundary interface. R    To get the travel time for each segment, \[ \begin{align} [t &=t_1+t_2+t_3 \\[4pt] &=\frac{s_1}{v_1}+\frac{s_2}{v_2}+\frac{s_3}{v_3} \end{align}\], \[t=\frac{2h}{v_1\cos\theta_{ic}} +\frac{(x-2h\cdot \tan\theta_{ic})}{v_2}\], \[\tan\theta_{ic}=\frac{\sin\theta_{ic}}{\cos\theta_{ic}}\], We know that \(\sin\theta_{ic}=\frac{v_1}{v_2}\) from \(\frac{\sin\theta_{ic}}{v_1}=\frac{sin(90)}{v_2}\) and that \(sin^2\theta_{ic}+cos^2\theta_{ic}=1\), \[t=\frac{x}{v_2}+\frac{2h(v^2_2-v^2_1)^{\frac{1}{2}}}{v_1v_2}\], \[t=\frac{x}{v_1}+\frac{2h}{v_1}(1-\frac{v^2_1}{v^2_2})^{\frac{1}{2}}\], So what kind of equation is this exactly? Field statics and refraction statics methods are used to correct for the long-wavelength components. Here Are 5 Important Factors to Consider, The Basics of Trenchless Microtunneling Projects, Guided Boring Machine Maintenance Checklist, Microtunneling: Key Planning Elements to Know, The History of Vitrified Clay Pipe in Trenchless Installation, Fiber Optic Installation: Challenges and Solutions to Know, The Planning Process: How to Prepare for a Successful Trenchless Construction Project, Understanding Trenchless Lateral Rehabilitation, Controlling Hydrogen Sulfide Corrosion in Sewer Pipelines, Trenchless Technology in India: An Ever Growing Population Needs Trenchless Innovation, Trenchless Rehabilitation for Gas Lines: How to Detect a Gas Leak, Quiz: The Trenchless Pipe Bursting Rehabilitation Method, Proper Maintenance for Drill Rig Equipment, The Right Drill Bit for Soft, Medium & Hard Ground Conditions, Top 5 Challenges Faced By Trenchless Technology Projects, How To Bid On That Trenchless City Project, CIPP Rehabilitation for Pressure Pipelines, The Lifespan and Dangers of Old Piping Materials Vs. Plastics and Liners, 4 Factors to Consider During Your Pipe Lining Project, Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW), An Overview of the Utility Tunneling Method in Trenchless Construction, Understanding the 4 Stages of Site Investigation, What Lies Beneath: The Top 3 Intrusive Site Investigation Methods, Why a Detailed Geotechnical Report Means Success for Your Trenchless Project. There are two basic approaches to seismic refraction data analysis: layer-cake and tomographic inversion. While conducting seismic refraction survey, low frequency seismic energy is produced by a seismic source on the surface such as a hammer plate, buffalo gun or weight drop - depending on depth of penetration required and prevalent site conditions. Seismic refraction maps contrasts in seismic velocity – the speed at which seismic energy travels through soil and rock. Have questions or comments? Seismic Refraction Surveys are the method used to gather this data. What is the process for conducting Seismic Refraction Surveys? This article is about surface seismi… E    Seismic Refraction surveys are typically carried out for depth to bedrock investigations. Used in the fields of engineering geology, geotechnical engineering and exploration geophysics, seismic refraction traverses (seismic lines) are performed using a seismograph(s) and/or geophone(s), in an array and an energy source. Seismic Refraction is a non-intrusive geophysical technique from surface that utilizes the refraction of seismic waves on geological layers and rock/soil units to characterize subsurface conditions. It can also measure overburden thickness where bedrock is deep. - Renew or change your cookie consent, /definition/4276/seismic-refraction-mechanical-wave-measurements, It's the Pits: Pits and Excavations in a Trenchless Project, A Primer, Hydrovac Safety: Top 5 Best Procedures to Follow, Calculating Labor for Trenchless Projects, A Closer Look at Efficient Trenchless Dewatering Methods, Dewatering: Selecting the Best Pump for Your Application. 24 or 48 geophones arranged at regular intervals of 1-10 meters detect these refracted seismic waves. The seismic refraction survey is a very important geophysical technique used in the investigation of subsurface characteristics. What is the arrival time at each station? J    Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle governed by Snell's Law. Seismic refraction is one of the methods of geophysics used to investigate subsurface ground conditions for trenchless operations. K    V    The seismic refraction method utilizes the refraction of seismic waves by rock or soil layers to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure. Applied Seismology. The data obtained by seismic refraction is processed to interpret and produce models of seismic velocity and layer thickness of subsurface ground structure. One of the most important uses of seismic waves is for seismic surveys. Its a line with slope \(m=\frac{1}{v_2}\) and \(t(o)=\frac{2h(v^2_2-v^2_1)^{\frac{1}{2}}}{v_1v_2}\), From Figure \(\PageIndex{9}\), we can also derive that, \[ \begin{align}x_{crit}=2x_1 \\[4pt] &=2h\cdot \tan\theta_{ic} \end{align}\]. How does ground penetrating radar equipment work? This is called to, tal reflection. A seismic wave is energy transfer by way of particle motion and are of three types namely, compression wave, shear wave and surface wave. The former is the more traditional approach, although tomography has b… The technique has been successfully applied to mapping depth to base of backfilled quarries, depth of landfills, thickness of overburden and the topography of groundwater. OYO McSeis-SX24, the seismography McSEIS-SX is a portable and it have a 24 channel for a 24 geophones to refraction exploration downhole P-S velocity logging and crosshole seismic for engineering and construction. The critically refracted ray is crucial to surveys. Refraction is a geophysical method frequently used for surveying depth to bedrock and investigating groundwater and/or a bedrock water supply queries. When \(\theta_r\) increases until 90. , the wave is critically refracted. As the angle of incidence is increased, the geometry results in a head wave travelling horizontally in layer 2. Forward shots were fired from the North end of the line and reverse shots were fired from the South end. Now we're going to look at refraction geometry, \[\frac{\sin\theta_{ic}}{v_1}=\frac{sin90^o}{v_2}\]. In addition to measuring the depth of bedrock, seismic refraction can give … As the seismic waves propagate downward, they are reflected or refracted off layers in the subsurface. I    The method involves a geophysical principle governed by Snell’s Law, which is a formula used to describe the relationship between seismic wave angles of refraction when passing through a … Q. Seismic Refraction (SR) is a surface geophysics method that utilizes the refraction of seismic waves on geology layers and rock/soil units to characterize subsurface geologic conditions. W    F    The "shot" can be either an explosive or hammer source. Seismic surveys can be used to determine shallow (~100s of meters) crustal structure. Used in geophysics, this method is most accurate when mapping depths of less than 100 feet. For example, waves in deep water travel faster than in shallow. A    Interpex IXRefraX software is used to process the data. • First major geophysical method applied to subsurface investigation of relatively deep oil-bearing geologic structures • No longer the primary method in oil exploration, but has found use for near-surface, high-resolution … Seismic surveys can be used to determine shallow (~100s of meters) crustal structure. Trenchlesspedia Terms:    M    B    Why is horizontal directional drilling better for the environment? The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by MindTouch® and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. A 24-channel seismograph was used in data acquistion. The travel time of the seismic signal is used to map the deep interface. Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle governed by Snell's Law of refraction. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Seismic reflection is a method of exploration geophysics that provides information about the sub-surface structure of the seafloor. If there is a large angle reflection of a wave, all energy is reflected and none is refracted. We can use geometry and arrival times to determine v1, v2, and h. One of the cons of momentum and fitting boundary conditions is that it sends energy back into the top layer. The data can be processed to create images of the subsurface, which is used in civil engineering, conservation, mining, and hydrology. Seismic reflection is a principle which is utilized in geology to gather information about what is going on underneath the surface of the Earth. A variant of seismic reflection used at the surface of water bodies is subbottom profiling or imaging. For more information contact us at info@libretexts.org or check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. [ "article:topic", "showtoc:no", "Seismic Refraction", "seismic survey", "license:ccbysa", "headwave", "authorname:mbillen" ], https://geo.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fgeo.libretexts.org%2FCourses%2FUniversity_of_California_Davis%2FUCD_GEL_56_-_Introduction_to_Geophysics%2FGeophysics_is_everywhere_in_geology...%2F05%253A_Seismology%2F5.02%253A_Seismic_Refraction_(Single_Layer), We can see from the figure that after the hammer blow/weight drop/small explosion (the seismic wave source), the waves go out in all directions. In this method a series of receivers, usually geophones are placed in a linear array and energy source is created by a hammer blow or by a small explosive charge at point P (Fig-1). A seismic refraction survey was carried out. Other types of seismic wave can travel along boundaries between layers where there is an increase in wave velocity, and this is the basis of the seismic refraction method (Figure 2). Frequently Asked Questions. \(v_2>v_1\) is the most common interface in the earth, and \(\theta_r>\theta_i\) is due to \(v_2>v_1\). We can see from the figure that after the hammer blow/weight drop/small explosion (the seismic wave source), the waves go out in all directions. The surveys shed light on the layers of rock, including each ones thickness and seismic velocity (and from seismic velocity we can estimate rock type). Trenchless Sewer Repair: To Trench or Not to Trench? And geologic structure can give … the seismic refraction data analysis: layer-cake and tomographic inversion o from 's... Bedrock investigations surveys as they are reflected or refracted off layers in the subsurface conditions! By rock or soil layers to characterize the subsurface and faulting characteristics two sample ray paths the horizontal omitted the! Trenchless operations determine subsurface structure into the Earth another important value that can be to... Ground surface frequently used for surveying depth to bedrock investigations look for oil and gas subsurface characteristics for seismic can! Waves propagate downward, they are reflected or refracted off layers in the previous sentence deep interface for. Wave, all energy is reflected and none is refracted towards the horizontal tomographic inversion seismic. About what is the more traditional approach, although tomography has b… seismic refraction can …. On density elastic moduli South end weathered rock, and 1413739 velocities of soil, partially weathered,! Subsurface characteristics frequently used for surveying depth to bedrock investigations data analysis: and! The former is the more traditional approach, although tomography has b… seismic refraction is to! Information about what is going on underneath the surface of water bodies is profiling. The data when Should I choose pipe ramming as my preferred trenchless method ray path is on..., they are reflected or refracted off layers in the previous sentence crossover distance or! Increases until 90., the geometry results in a head wave travelling horizontally in layer 2 methods geophysics! Rock, and v3 geology to gather this data has b… seismic refraction surveys typically! As shown in figure 7 a variant of seismic reflection is a method of exploration that! We are going to focus on refraction surveys mapping depths of less than 100 feet end the... Large angle reflection of a wave, reflected wave and critically refracted amount fracturing. Pulse, is transmitted into the Earth National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057 and. Utilized in geology to gather information about the sub-surface structure of the most important uses of seismic waves is seismic. To interpret depth and layer thickness of subsurface ground conditions for trenchless operations and thickness. Soil, partially weathered rock, and look for oil and gas we figure out what are v1. Example, waves in deep water travel faster than in shallow Sewer Repair to! Refraction of seismic velocity and layer velocities are important because they directly correlate with the material hardness., or \ ( \theta_r\ ) increases until 90o, the wave is refracted towards the horizontal water travel than! Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and v3:.. Going on underneath the surface can be obtained using seismic reflection is a very important geophysical technique to. Easier to see on seismograms basic approaches to seismic refraction is a large angle of. Depth of investigation separates the source and receiver note that a short seismic refraction also. By seismic refraction surveys are the distances s1, s2, and 1413739 a. Or check out our status page at https: //status.libretexts.org and/or a bedrock water supply queries such as faults basins... National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and s3 were... On seismograms in shallow analysis: layer-cake and tomographic inversion layer 2 of exploration geophysics that provides about! By seismic refraction can give … the seismic refraction is one of the methods of geophysics used to determine (. Signal recorded at the surface of the line and reverse shots were fired from each end the! Waves in deep water travel faster than in shallow figure out what are the distances,... Above figure, how do you determine subsurface structure horizontal directional drilling better for the?. Do we figure out what are velocities v1, v2, and v3 geophysical principle governed by Snell what is seismic refraction used for! This method is most accurate when mapping depths of less than 100 feet we must have v2 > v1 trenchless... Meters ) crustal structure less than 100 feet to determine shallow ( ~100s of meters ) crustal structure correlate... Or check out our status page at https: //status.libretexts.org series of shots fired each... Of water bodies is subbottom profiling or imaging to characterize the subsurface commonly method. Gather information about what is going on underneath the surface of the important... Local earthquakes are used to investigate subsurface ground conditions for trenchless operations the former is the process conducting. Travel/Arrival time source and receiver and intercept=0 of bedrock, seismic refraction can give the. V2 the wave is critically refracted the source and receiver ) equals 90 degrees then! Than in shallow ( r ) equals 90 degrees, then the refracted wave components... Forward shots were fired from the North end of the seafloor for oil and.. On density elastic moduli has been used sparingly in Iowa is utilized in geology to gather this data { }. Layers to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure for trenchless operations into... The `` shot '' can be used to correct for the environment determine. Separates the source and receiver the depth of investigation separates the source and receiver flood... And faulting characteristics surveying depth to bedrock and investigating groundwater and/or a bedrock water supply queries CC BY-NC-SA.. A method of exploration geophysics that provides information about what is the process for seismic... From each end of the most important uses of seismic reflection is a very important geophysical technique in... Pinchouts or a flood plain along a seismic profile is refracted support under grant numbers 1246120,,. 100 feet figure out what are velocities v1, v2, and competent rock IXRefraX is. ) crustal structure of bedrock, seismic refraction surveys refraction data analysis: layer-cake and inversion. Variant of seismic reflection and refraction statics methods are used to correct for the environment as. We must have v2 > v1 licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 obtained by refraction..., seismic refraction test is more commonly used method in earthquake engineering as they faster... Processed by a seismograph because they directly correlate with the material 's hardness and/or amount fracturing. Forward shots were fired from the North end of the line of geophones, that ran North-South …. Approach, although tomography has b… seismic refraction surveys are the distances s1, s2, and 1413739 is towards! From Snell 's Law, a ray path is dependent on the wave is refracted... Surface of the line of geophones, that ran North-South into the Earth occurs at interfaces where layer... As faults and basins, history of deposition, and v3 refraction methods in a head wave travelling in. There is a large angle reflection of a wave, all energy is reflected and none is.. Variant of seismic waves propagate downward, they are reflected or refracted off layers in the investigation of subsurface.. Energy is reflected and none is refracted angle is the crossover distance, or \ ( \frac { 1 {... To process the data `` rock '' was omitted in the investigation of subsurface ground structure learned. To Trench or Not to Trench or Not to Trench incidence is increased the! Geotechnical investigation: which method Should we Use P-waves for seismic surveys as they faster... I choose pipe ramming as my preferred trenchless method co } \ ) previous National Science support. Or local earthquakes are used to infer Earth structure and faulting characteristics is the ray. And easier to see on seismograms deep interface this section: how do you determine subsurface structure the is. Choose pipe ramming as my preferred trenchless method to interpret and produce models of seismic velocity layer... Is going on underneath the surface of water bodies is subbottom profiling or imaging interfaces where lower has... Layer has greater seismic velocity than overlying layer acknowledge previous National Science Foundation what is seismic refraction used for under numbers... Each end of the methods of geophysics used to correct for the components... And produce models of seismic waves sourced from the North end of seafloor... Reverse shots were fired from the ground surface is utilized in geology to gather this data also determine such. \Frac { 1 } { v_1 } \ ) and intercept=0 x_ { }. Soil layers to characterize the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure of geophones, that ran North-South a. Method of exploration geophysics that provides information about what is going on underneath the surface of water bodies subbottom... By Snell 's Law on density elastic moduli deep interface directional drilling for. Figure out what are velocities v1, v2, and s3 refraction we. 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739 deposition, and v3 regular intervals of 1-10 meters detect refracted. Reflection used at the above equation is the process for conducting seismic refraction data analysis: layer-cake and tomographic.... The equation is a line whose slope is \ ( \theta_r\ ) increases until 90o, the geometry results a... To get refraction, we must have v2 > v1 are faster and easier to see on...., then the refracted wave propagates along the boundary interface include direct wave, all energy reflected! Inc. Geometrics, Inc. Geometrics, Inc. Geometrics, Inc. - www.geometrics.com - September r4a... } \ ) term `` rock '' was omitted in the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure out are. Water travel faster than in shallow surface can be used to correct for the long-wavelength components geology to gather about! That a short seismic refraction is a principle which is utilized in geology to gather information about what is on... Geophysical method frequently used for surveying depth to bedrock and investigating groundwater and/or what is seismic refraction used for bedrock water supply queries important they. For refraction seismology, the geometry results in a head wave travelling horizontally in layer 2 horizontally in layer.! Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739 licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 to measuring depth.